Senior LandEvaluation Expert, Ministry of Agriculture, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Agriculture depends fundamentally on natural resources and has an important role in their conservation. The deteriorating land and water resources in Ethiopia presents a concern to rural land users, and wider public awareness of environmental issues is bringing urgency to conservation issues. Water depletion and land (natural resources) degradation, themselves the result of the ever-increasing ecological imbalances, caused the recurrent drought and famine. Sustainable agriculture plays the central role in poverty reduction efforts of the country. Meeting food-security and food-self-sufficiency in Ethiopia require, among other things:
Scientific land and water use planning and implementation are the fundamental process. Nevertheless, it has to be founded on the basic principles of community-driven-development and fully supported with participatory and applied research activities on the major biophysical and socio-economic land resources. The practice has to be enhanced with smallholder level rainwater-harvesting techniques in areas with relatively better length of growing period (LGP), followed by the huge dam construction works in lowland areas. This measure will be the basis for sustained productivity in continuous and iterative process of producing and disseminating alternative land use options equipped with alternative land use technology packages to farmers/pastoralists in the specific agro-ecological settings. In addition, the proper involvement and participation of all stakeholders prior to huge investment works is essential. The human resources development (HRD) and training and education (TE) establishment gearing towards the efficient implementation of integrated land and water planning should not be overlooked.
Land degradation and water depletion has been recognised as serious problem in the Ethiopian highlands. The fear of lossing the fertile topsoil has driven experts, planners and decision-makers to tremendous efforts focused on soil conservation measures.
Land and water resources are limited and finite. The wise use of rural land and water resources with the best technologies, in the most rational and beneficial way possible is crucial and detrimental for the social and economic well-being of the country and its people.
Land refers not only to soils, but also to land forms, climate, hydrology, vegetation and fauna, together with land improvements (terracing, irrigation, drainage works) and unsustainable land use practices (including all land using community)
Because of relatively better climate, rainfall amount and frequency and less health hazards, most of the Ethiopian farming communities live on the highlands (>1500 metres above sea level, mas1). Areas extensively inhabited by pastoralists whose subsistence is dependent on extensive grazing also indirectly rely on the cereal productions of adjacent highland regions.
Although Ethiopia has an estimated area of 1.12 million km2 with a wide ecological diversity, the uneven spatial and temporal occurrence of water resources are still the causes of underutilisation of arable land for agriculture. Generally speaking between 80–90% of the country’s water resources is found in four basins (Abay, Tekeze, Baro-Akobo and Omo-Ghibe) where the population is not more than 30–40%. On the other hand, the water resources in the other basins (east and central) are only 10–20% whereas the population in these basins is over 60% (MoWR 1995).
This clearly depicts that ‘moisture stress’ in most of the agricultural potential areas is the major constraint. According to FAO (1994) the total irrigated area in Ethiopian river basins amounts to 161,790 ha, which is only 4.4% of the predicted 3.4 million hectares potentially irrigable land.
Faced with this situation, coupled with a poverty driven depleted resource base, the risk averting strategy that has been followed by the rural community is increasing unsustainable pressure on natural resources (over utilisation of available land, encroachment on wildlife and forest priority areas, overgrazing etc.) leading to land and water depletion and degradation and/or ‘forced’ migrations to urban areas.
In addition, the absence of off-farm income in rural areas has also contributed to the high population pressure on arable land, which leads to fast deterioration of natural resources.
This situation will remain a challenge until a high rate of agricultural transformation coupled with maximum and sustainable agricultural productivity (per unit area of land-intensification) takes off from the present crisis. Realising the present socio-economic situations, it is evident that Ethiopia cannot meet its food security and food-self-sufficiency objectives using the prevailing land and water use systems.
Taking into consideration the catchment areas of each river basin of Ethiopia vis-à-vis the population census of 1997, it can be observed that more than 129 persons/km2 live in the Rift Valley, while the bulk of the lowlands are scarcely populated with as few as 8.3 persons/km2.
Agriculture in Ethiopia contributes 40% of the total gross domestic product (GDP) and 85–90% of export earnings. It accounts for 85% of the total employment. However agricultural productivity had been characterised by its low productivity. The causes are various, diverse and often interlinked with poverty.
As most of the poor are living in the rural parts of the country, agricultural development will still play the central role in poverty reduction efforts. This implies that an increased productivity in agriculture will have a powerful dynamic general socio-economic equilibrium effect benefiting the poor.
Increased productivity in agriculture should be driven by technology and investment for sustainable productivity and agricultural transformation. The most prominent social benefits that can be brought by the increased productivity are elimination of hunger, fast economic growth, reduction of poverty and proper development and utilisation of natural resources.
Again sustainable agriculture needs integrated land and water planning, implementation and management, which increase the efficiency of water use in agriculture. This process has to be led by the community and their development partners, i.e. local governments.
Land and water development can be undertaken for settlement and irrigated agriculture. The co-ordinated effort and consent of stakeholders play an important role in minimising mistakes, which are very costly.
Training and education is also an important tool in achieving the desired productivity level by the rural poor.
Experiences suggest that decentralisation will not work without vibrant, participatory communities, i.e. woreda—local government, for sustainability. The two can evolve together dynamically, strengthening one another (Alkiire et al. 2001).
Learning-by-doing is an important way of creating capacity in communities and local governments. Technical schemes in the past often failed because they did not correspond to communities’ needs and priorities (Esmail 2002).
Once communities and local governments are given the power and resources, they could choose and implement projects. The very act of wrestling with local problems builds capacity, which later can be supplemented by education and training.
Community-driven land and water management that relies directly on resource poor land users has the potential to make poverty reduction efforts more inclusive and cost effective than programmes traditionally run by governments.
Though community led development programmes are relevant across many sectors, it has greatest potential for goods and services that are small-scale and not complex and that require co-operation, such as common pool goods best represented by the management of surface water irrigation systems, management of communal land (pasture, grazing), management of public forestry etc. (Manor 1999).
Why community-driven land and water management?
Scientific land and water use planning and implementation are the fundamental process. Nevertheless, it has to be founded on the basic principles of community-driven-development and fully supported with participatory and applied research activities on the major biophysical and socio-economic land resources. The practice has to be enhanced with smallholder level rainwater-harvesting techniques in areas with relatively better length of growing period (LGP), followed by the huge dam construction works in lowland areas. This measure will be the basis for sustained productivity in continuous and iterative process of producing and disseminating alternative land use options equipped with alternative land use technology packages to farmers/pastoralists in the specific agro-ecological settings. In addition, the proper involvement and participation of all stakeholders prior to huge investment works is essential. The human resources development (HRD) and training and education (TE) establishment gearing towards the efficient implementation of integrated land and water planning should not be overlooked.
Land degradation and water depletion has been recognised as serious problem in the Ethiopian highlands. The fear of lossing the fertile topsoil has driven experts, planners and decision-makers to tremendous efforts focused on soil conservation measures.
Land and water resources are limited and finite. The wise use of rural land and water resources with the best technologies, in the most rational and beneficial way possible is crucial and detrimental for the social and economic well-being of the country and its people.
Land refers not only to soils, but also to land forms, climate, hydrology, vegetation and fauna, together with land improvements (terracing, irrigation, drainage works) and unsustainable land use practices (including all land using community)
Because of relatively better climate, rainfall amount and frequency and less health hazards, most of the Ethiopian farming communities live on the highlands (>1500 metres above sea level, mas1). Areas extensively inhabited by pastoralists whose subsistence is dependent on extensive grazing also indirectly rely on the cereal productions of adjacent highland regions.
Although Ethiopia has an estimated area of 1.12 million km2 with a wide ecological diversity, the uneven spatial and temporal occurrence of water resources are still the causes of underutilisation of arable land for agriculture. Generally speaking between 80–90% of the country’s water resources is found in four basins (Abay, Tekeze, Baro-Akobo and Omo-Ghibe) where the population is not more than 30–40%. On the other hand, the water resources in the other basins (east and central) are only 10–20% whereas the population in these basins is over 60% (MoWR 1995).
This clearly depicts that ‘moisture stress’ in most of the agricultural potential areas is the major constraint. According to FAO (1994) the total irrigated area in Ethiopian river basins amounts to 161,790 ha, which is only 4.4% of the predicted 3.4 million hectares potentially irrigable land.
Faced with this situation, coupled with a poverty driven depleted resource base, the risk averting strategy that has been followed by the rural community is increasing unsustainable pressure on natural resources (over utilisation of available land, encroachment on wildlife and forest priority areas, overgrazing etc.) leading to land and water depletion and degradation and/or ‘forced’ migrations to urban areas.
In addition, the absence of off-farm income in rural areas has also contributed to the high population pressure on arable land, which leads to fast deterioration of natural resources.
This situation will remain a challenge until a high rate of agricultural transformation coupled with maximum and sustainable agricultural productivity (per unit area of land-intensification) takes off from the present crisis. Realising the present socio-economic situations, it is evident that Ethiopia cannot meet its food security and food-self-sufficiency objectives using the prevailing land and water use systems.
Taking into consideration the catchment areas of each river basin of Ethiopia vis-à-vis the population census of 1997, it can be observed that more than 129 persons/km2 live in the Rift Valley, while the bulk of the lowlands are scarcely populated with as few as 8.3 persons/km2.
Agriculture in Ethiopia contributes 40% of the total gross domestic product (GDP) and 85–90% of export earnings. It accounts for 85% of the total employment. However agricultural productivity had been characterised by its low productivity. The causes are various, diverse and often interlinked with poverty.
As most of the poor are living in the rural parts of the country, agricultural development will still play the central role in poverty reduction efforts. This implies that an increased productivity in agriculture will have a powerful dynamic general socio-economic equilibrium effect benefiting the poor.
Increased productivity in agriculture should be driven by technology and investment for sustainable productivity and agricultural transformation. The most prominent social benefits that can be brought by the increased productivity are elimination of hunger, fast economic growth, reduction of poverty and proper development and utilisation of natural resources.
Again sustainable agriculture needs integrated land and water planning, implementation and management, which increase the efficiency of water use in agriculture. This process has to be led by the community and their development partners, i.e. local governments.
Land and water development can be undertaken for settlement and irrigated agriculture. The co-ordinated effort and consent of stakeholders play an important role in minimising mistakes, which are very costly.
Training and education is also an important tool in achieving the desired productivity level by the rural poor.
Experiences suggest that decentralisation will not work without vibrant, participatory communities, i.e. woreda—local government, for sustainability. The two can evolve together dynamically, strengthening one another (Alkiire et al. 2001).
Learning-by-doing is an important way of creating capacity in communities and local governments. Technical schemes in the past often failed because they did not correspond to communities’ needs and priorities (Esmail 2002).
Once communities and local governments are given the power and resources, they could choose and implement projects. The very act of wrestling with local problems builds capacity, which later can be supplemented by education and training.
Community-driven land and water management that relies directly on resource poor land users has the potential to make poverty reduction efforts more inclusive and cost effective than programmes traditionally run by governments.
Though community led development programmes are relevant across many sectors, it has greatest potential for goods and services that are small-scale and not complex and that require co-operation, such as common pool goods best represented by the management of surface water irrigation systems, management of communal land (pasture, grazing), management of public forestry etc. (Manor 1999).
Why community-driven land and water management?
Technical assistance and skill-oriented education and training should be given to all people involved in and responsible for land and water management, planning implementation and execution, i.e. communities, land users, decision-makers and technocrats.
Moreover, the installation of major data/information structures like mini-meteorological stations in specific agro-ecological settings with the necessary human resources should not be overlooked.
Regarding the above notion, the following important points are raised for discussions and verification for enhancing capacities of communities and lowest level of local government.
This measure is important in ensuring security on the land use rights and regulations.
The Agricultural Technical, Vocational Education and Training (Agri-TVET) programme’s (rainwater harvesting and small-scale irrigation curricula) can be used as an opportunity to all people involved in land and water use management, i.e. wereda-level decision makers, technocrats and water use associations.
Ethiopia gets an annual rainfall apparently adequate for rainfed food and fodder production. However, moisture stress prevail in most parts of the country due to the uneven and unpredictable occurrences of rainfall both spatially and temporally.
Moreover, the ever increasing unsustainable use of all bio-physical natural resources coupled with overwhelming rural poverty and mismatch between uncontrolled population growth and food and fodder production have been attributed to the ever increasing ecological imbalances. This ecological disturbance has been in turn attributed to the recurrent famine nowadays happening every 3–5 years.
Furthermore, the traditional and backward agricultural practice and the absence of applied research and extension services to alleviate local situations, also contribute to insufficient exploitation of the available rainfall amount. In addition, most of the available data are obsolete and not suiting local situations.
The little efforts made to use the water resources (government, non-governmental organisations (NGOs), farmers etc.) are only concentrated on the natural courses of rivers on the available plains and are not giving due attention to resource poor farmers and pastoralists. And investments on river diversions, levelling and other reclamation efforts are almost negligible.
The major reasons can be summarised as follows:
In spite of the above shortcomings, the success exhibited in the production of cotton in the Afar Regional State can be cited as indication for the potentials and opportunities to development of land and water harmonization.
Shortage of rain and population pressure has been blamed for food insecurity and low productivity of agriculture and deterioration of natural resources. However, if strategies are designed to alleviate the above problems and if water resources are developed to cater to irrigation, it would be possible to attain agricultural surplus enough for domestic consumption as well as external markets.As the main and prior problem of agricultural productivity even in the rainfed areas calls for mitigating moisture stress, rain, ground and surface water resources have to be made to contribute to the agricultural development through supportive applied research on all crop–environmental interactions within the specific agro-ecology.
The main aspects for future land and water management research initiatives could be the following, but should be exhausted in the succeeding forums.
Agro-ecology characterisation at larger scale for each regional state.
The design of land use policy strategy, regulations at each level of planning and mechanisms of harmonising them.
Crop–environmental interaction within a given agro-ecology, i.e.:
soil nutrient status and fertiliser recommendations
minimum irrigation requirements
irrigation frequency (with respect to soils quality and crop requirements)
areas with relatively better rainfall amount but needing supplementary irrigation
water balance calculations
Soil moisture storage capacity
reference (potential) evapotranspiration and crop coefficient (Kc value)
minimum climatic data/information needed
length of growing period (LGP)
rainfall amount, probability, intensity, frequency and distribution
available water capacity of soils and other physical properties
crop rotations and organic farming
socio-economic studies (indigenous knowledge, attitude of the community towards land and hydrology)
agro-industry and marketing, and other post harvest technologies
conservation (soil and water) requirements
specific land and water management options
other constraints and opportunities to development—exhausting all issues and assumptions in specific area within a period of time.
Major land use (irrigation, rainfed, specific crop, grazing, livestock) requirements, i.e.:
rainfall amount; moisture availability and other land qualities
nutrient requirements
climatic requirements (temperature, humidity etc.)
harvest index and yield response factors
growing cycle
slope and landscape
salinity/alkalinity tolerance
calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and Gypsum (CaSO42H2O) tolerance
soil physical properties requirements (texture, structure, infiltration capacity etc.)
Despite the challenges and setbacks, there is a window of opportunity for progress. There is no blue print for achieving progress. Strategies and interventions should reflect the actual situation and need thorough thought on how they might be used.
Alkiire S. et al. 2001. Community driven development (CDD). ESRDF project, African Region, Draft for comments. The World Bank.
Esmail T. Decentralization and institutions for collective Action: Scaling-up productive natural resources management programs. The World Bank, Washington, DC, USA. (Draft in progress)
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). 1994. Master land use plan. Assistance to land use planning project, Ministry of Agriculture, NRMRD, Ex-LUPRD, 1983. FAO, Rome, Italy.
FDRE (Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia). 1992–93. The Ethiopian integrated water policy. FDRE, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.Manor J. 1999. The political economy of decentralization. Direction in Development Series. The World Bank, Washington, DC, USA.
MoWR (Ministry of Water Resources). 1995. Annual Report. MoWR, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.In spite of the above shortcomings, the success exhibited in the production of cotton in the Afar Regional State can be cited as indication for the potentials and opportunities to development of land and water harmonization.
Shortage of rain and population pressure has been blamed for food insecurity and low productivity of agriculture and deterioration of natural resources. However, if strategies are designed to alleviate the above problems and if water resources are developed to cater to irrigation, it would be possible to attain agricultural surplus enough for domestic consumption as well as external markets.As the main and prior problem of agricultural productivity even in the rainfed areas calls for mitigating moisture stress, rain, ground and surface water resources have to be made to contribute to the agricultural development through supportive applied research on all crop–environmental interactions within the specific agro-ecology.
The main aspects for future land and water management research initiatives could be the following, but should be exhausted in the succeeding forums.
Despite the challenges and setbacks, there is a window of opportunity for progress. There is no blue print for achieving progress. Strategies and interventions should reflect the actual situation and need thorough thought on how they might be used.
Alkiire S. et al. 2001. Community driven development (CDD). ESRDF project, African Region, Draft for comments. The World Bank.
Esmail T. Decentralization and institutions for collective Action: Scaling-up productive natural resources management programs. The World Bank, Washington, DC, USA. (Draft in progress)
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). 1994. Master land use plan. Assistance to land use planning project, Ministry of Agriculture, NRMRD, Ex-LUPRD, 1983. FAO, Rome, Italy.
FDRE (Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia). 1992–93. The Ethiopian integrated water policy. FDRE, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.Manor J. 1999. The political economy of decentralization. Direction in Development Series. The World Bank, Washington, DC, USA.
MoWR (Ministry of Water Resources). 1995. Annual Report. MoWR, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.